Fig. 4

Basic and acquired functions of carotenoids during plant evolution. Carotenoids play central roles in photosynthesis and photoprotection as the key components of photosystems. Carotenoids also contribute to the pigmentation of seeds, fruits, and flowers, which showed co-evolution with seed dispensers and pollinators. Carotenoid derived phytohormone, including abscisic acid (ABA) and strigolactone (SL), arise from the evolution of land plants. Apocarotenoid signaling affects plant growth, development, and stress response, but more signaling molecules and the pathways need to be further elucidated